Popular music composer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Popular music composer - Essay Example Composers like Chopin, Schubert, and Saint-Saens aspire to his greatness. While writing his music, he did it in full orchestral scores. His drafts were always final drafts while most of his works attained legendary status. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart got respect all over the world because of his prowess as an established, gifted and experienced composer. Due to his perfection in the classical mode of music, Beethoven, a renowned classical music composer, decided never to imitate him but rather to create his new mode of classical music. Beethoven did all this for the respect he had for Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts work features offer one of the finest balance in history between orchestra and solo instruments. He is also regarded as one of the finest piano musicians ever to grace the earth and his prowess at the violin are equally adept, making him be one of The finest musicians ever to live. People were more generous in their praise for Wolfgang not only because he was younger and more gifted musically but also he was more appealing, free in his ways, and spontaneous (Melograni, & Cochrane. 2007). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s opera Don Giovanni is regarded as his greatest single work because of its pristine

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Mobile Phones Essay Example for Free

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Mobile Phones Essay Mobile phones are really very important in our lives that we cannot think a life without them. It is a long-range, portable electronic device used for mobile communication. Mobile phones are affordable, easy to use and comfortable. The mobile phones have become crucial part of our life. There are facts which prove this. They have replaced the wrist watches or the alarm clocks at home as we can see time in them wherever we are and also set alarms in them. †¢ When you are stressed you can listen to the music from in-built music player. You can also listen to the radio in these mobile phones. †¢ Various mobile phones come with high resolution megapixel cameras ranging from 1.3 to 8 megapixels. Mobile phones because of their varied multi-function capabilities have replaced many other devices. However Studies have shown mobile phone radiation does produce biological changes in humans – such as changes in brain temperature and activity as well as blood pressure changes. Also there is evidence indicating that microwave radiation from mobile phones may cause serious diseases and disturbances in the physiology. This includes an increased cancer risk and genetic damage, disturbed brain function and other effects. Moreover mobile phones while driving is a distraction that brings risk of road traffic accidents. In conclusion, I believe although there are disadvantages of using mobile phones the advantages are more. They have completely intruded in our lives and have made their own unique stand. Once it was considered as luxury is now the thing closest to our hearts.

Economic Development of FATA Within Pakistan

Economic Development of FATA Within Pakistan Introduction 1. Situated midway along Pakistans border with Afghanistan is a wedge of rugged terrain, dotted with sparsely populated valleys, home to a dozen Pakhtun tribes and hundreds of clans and sub-tribes. This mountainous land, known as the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), is made up of seven political agencies and six smaller zones, called Frontier Regions, which separate the tribal agencies from the rest of the country. On three sides, FATA is bounded by the settled provinces of Pakistan. The Durand Line forms its western border. In the 19th century, the area held great strategic importance, serving as a buffer between the British colonial government of India and Tsarist Russia. Starting with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the turmoil and instability across the border spilled over into FATA. 2. FATA has remained one of the most insular and isolated corners of the country cut off from the mainstream of Pakistani society. Increasingly impoverished and marginalized, they have become an easy pray to terrorist elements. The overall economic situation of the region has remained below normal level due to governmental policies coupled with overall economic decline in the country due to the after effects of GWOT.In the succeeding paragraph an attempt has been made to analyze economic potentials of FATA with a view to initiate an economic development drive in the region. The aim remains to bring facilities of life to its people eradicating social deprivation. Aim 3. To carry out a detailed analysis of present eco sit of Pakistan, with a view to recommend measures for a sustained economic development process within Pakistans economic capacity to spearhead an economic development process in FATA in specific and Pakistan in general. 4. Sequence. The research paper haws been divided into following major parts:- Part I Pakistan Economic Review Problems of Pakistani Economy Part II FATA Economy Agency wise economic potential Recommendations to improve FATA Economy c. Part-IV Budgetary Allocation Recommendations for Sector Wise and Consolidated Budgetary Allocation Part III Economic Developments Models for Development of FATA Reconstruction Opportunity Zones (ROZs) FATA Sustainable Development Program (SDP) GCC EU Friends of FATA Fund (FFF) Recommended Framework PART I 5. Pakistan Economic Overview. Pakistans economy has been fluctuating throughout its 55 years history. The deplorable state of the economy was the result of many years of economic mismanagement and imprudent economics policies of the successive governments. The tragic events of September 11 and their aftermath further exacerbated the already difficult emerging situation on the global economic scene  [1]  . 6. Problems of Pakistani Economy. Few of the major ones are: Political Instability. In Pakistan governance is characterized by uncertain policies, ineffective implementation, limited accountability to clients, regulatory overhangs, and failure of the legal system to provide timely recourse. Lack of Long Term Planning. Despite the establishment of planning commission in 1953, there has not been any meaningful planning. Futuristic needs/trends have not been catered for by so called planners. Nationalisation versus Privatisation. In the past 60 years the country has oscillated between the two options and even now the privatisation drive is marred by personal interests and lack of transparency. Bad Governance. Usually competent/professional people have not governed the state-controlled industries. This had pronounced effect on overall poor output of these units. Poor Banking System. Our banking system has not supported the growth of economy. Money of innocent people deposited with these banks has been loaned to influential people that now stand defaulted. Large Trade Deficit. In 2009, 80% of our imports were financed by our export earnings. This ratio has come down to only 50%, it may go up to 60% but a gap of 40% of financing needs in order to keep with the import level still exists  [2]  . Fiscal Deficit. Pakistans government takes away 20% of national income as its own. 80% is left in the private sector and 20% in the hands of the government is spent on defence, debt servicing, development on education, health, general administration etc  [3]  . Declining Foreign Trade. In 1990, Pakistans share was 0.2% of the world trade. After 20 years it has come down to 0.12% in a very buoyant world economy  [4]  .Pakistan is stuck with only a few commodities textiles, leather, rice, sports, goods and the surgical goods. Poor Economic Indicators. Pakistans indicators in literacy, infant mortality, in access to water supply, primary enrolment ratios are more comparable to Africa rather than to the countries of similar per capita income. Energy Crisis. Our industry is at a disadvantage that they get the orders from foreign countries but they cannot execute the orders because there are electricity outages and in addition of cost of production becomes higher than international competitors. Law and Order Situation. In 2007, Pakistan was one of the most favourite countries among the international investor community  [5]  .However, in two years time we have missed that boat due to alarming law and order situation in the country. Faulty Taxation System. Indirect taxes account for about 80 % of tax revenues, with nearly half of this coming from trade-related taxes  [6]  . This narrowness of the tax base can be traced to weak tax administration. Smuggling / Black Economy. Independent economic analysts estimate an annual direct revenue loss of 25 billion rupees (US$540 Million) to the government because of smuggling  [7]  . Export / Import Imbalances. This is usually over US$ 3-4 billion per annum. The reason is heavy production cost and our inability to convert raw materials into finished goods  [8]  . Heavy External Debt. With over US$ 32 billion, as external debt, even our future economic development is at stake  [9]  . Population Growth. This over hanging liability is a constant disadvantage to our overall economic growth. The effects of our economic growth are eaten away by the rapid growth of population  [10]  . Unrealistic Economic Policies. The absence of competent economist in planning departments of the government has adversely effected the economic growth. Human Resources Management. Pakistan expenditure on social development sector has remained poor. The talent is going to foreign countries due to mismanagement  [11]  . Exports. The Rapidly growing competition in international markets coupled with improved quality standards has resulted in substantial decrease of share in foreign trade. Poor Literacy Rate. Pakistans primary and secondary school enrollment rates are considerably low. The average adult literacy rate is less than 50%.  [12]  . PART II FATA ECONOMY 7. The rural economy is chiefly pastoral, with agriculture practiced in a few fertile valleys. The local economy operates on an informal basis and is undocumented, since few laws providing for the regulation of economic activity have been extended Most households are engaged in primary-level subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing. Some are involved in business and trading, or find employment in the small-scale commercial and industrial sectors. Those unable to earn a living at home migrate to other parts of the country or travel abroad in search of work. Women take active part in agricultural activities, collect fuel wood and fetch water, in addition to attending to household work and family duties. 8. Agriculture  [13]   Small landholders make up the majority of farmers and engage in agriculture mainly at the subsistence level, characterized by the underutilization of land, poor productivity and risk- adverse behavior. Only 7 per cent of the total geographic area of FATA is cultivated, with another 1 per cent recorded as fallow, accounting for roughly half of all potentially cultivable land. Overall production and per-hectare yields in FATA compare poorly to figures for the country as a whole. The yield per hectare for wheat in FATA is just 38 per cent of the national. 9. Poultry and Livestock  [14]   Livestock and poultry are an essential component of the rural economy, providing income support for most farm households. The size of the herd depends on the households capacity to purchase animal feed in the winter and spring months, when natural fodder is thin on the ground. Some 4.9 million ruminants and 6.7 million birds are being reared across FATA.Fish farming is practised mainly at the household level on wasteland and marginal lands. 10. Commerce and Trade  [15]   Commerce and trade form a major source of livelihood in the tribal areas, second only to agriculture. Historically, and particularly during the 1980s, the region was a major centre for opium production and trafficking. Today, the transit trade with Afghanistan provides employment for the local population. 11. Industry  [16]   Industrial activity is restricted primarily to small, owner-financed units, operating without government oversight Some mineral extraction is taking place in various agencies, using outdated technology and antiquated methods. Many seek employment as short-term unskilled labourers or enlist in the local security and paramilitary forces. Those who are able to travel find work in cities across Pakistan as well as in the Middle East. There is considerable local expertise in the manufacture of weapons but production is not regulated and export to the settled areas is illegal. 12. Forests  [17]   Forests are an integral part of the rural economy, playing a significant role in local livelihoods particularly in the mountainous regions. The forest cover is declining rapidly as a result of timber extraction, prolonged periods of drought, uncontrolled grazing, and pressure from fuel wood and fodder collection. Over-exploitation has also affected the natural regenerative capacity of forests. With forest resources rapidly disappearing, the environmental services provided by natural ecosystems have also diminished. Rangeland and pasture areas are in a depleted state, partly from overgrazing but also because of extended periods of drought. 13. Economic Potential Available. A variety of economic potential exists in the tribal areas depending upon the population, land, geography, and vicinity of the Afghan border. These will be covered as per the existing administrative set up of the areas.The agency wise economic potential is covered in succeeding pqrqraphs  [18]  :- 15. Dir, Swat, Bajur and Chitral Agency. As per the old records the major source of economy has been Agriculture. Where so ever agriculture is possible majority of the population depends upon agriculture, but the produce is not sufficient to sustain the complete population therefore grain and certain other items have to be imported from other parts of the country. The second major source of economy has been cattle farming. It is still common in all the highland country and people involved in this profession spend a nomadic life shifting their abode in search of pastures and with the severity of weather. Mineral to include Iron and Copper are also found in the Khashkar valley of Bajour Agency, these are being mined in certain areas and few villages are totally employed in this profession. Inferior Cotton Carpets and Shawls are also made in these areas through which a number of families are sustaining their livelyhood. Forests have been another major source of income and have contribut ed in the overall revenue generation from the area. Deodar forests of upper Dir valley are a famous source of income to thousands of people. Although these are protected by Forest department yet certain rights have been secured by the local population to sustain their livelihood. 16. Mohmand Agency. The Mohmand country comprises barren hills and a little of fertile alluvial plains between the doab of the rivers. Major produce is Grass, Dwarf Palm, Firewood and charcoal. But this produce is meager enough to sustain the population; therefore reliance of majority of the population is on trade through Khyber Pass from Afghanistan. It has been replaced by smuggling of drugs, weapons and other electronic item of Afghan transit trade which passes through Khyber pass. 17. Khyber Agency. The Khyber Pass is the great northern route from Afghanistan into Pakistan and India, while Kurram and Gomal Passes form intermediate communications. Agriculture has been the major source of sustenance besides trade. A limited cottage industry of gun manufacturing also exists in Bara area of Khyber Agency. Now a days smuggling through Afghan transit trade is the main stay of the economy along with drug trafficking and gun running. Cattle farming as a tradition have always been supporting the tribes in Khyber Agency. The Mullagori marble deposits are one of the largest marble deposits of the world. Other mineral deposits in Khyber Agency include soapstone, limestone, dolomite, ciliate, silica sand, barite, mica, and graphite. Marble deposits are found in Mullagori, Sultan Khel, Ghundai Sarand and Loe Shalman. Soapstone is the second most important mineral of Khyber Agency. The major deposit lies 7 kilometres from Jamrud Bazaar. The mineral production figures for the year 2003-2004 include 7260 tons marble, 1,82,160 tons of lime stone, 1200 tons of soapstone and 110 tons of barite. Khyber Agency has a very low industrial base having only three industrial units of significance including the Bara Ghee Mills and two cigarette factories namely One More Cigarette Factory and Tatara Cigarette factory with a total employment estimated at 525 persons. There are other small silk processing units at Alam Gudar Bara, which is basically a cottage industry. 18. Orakzai Agency. Named on a pathan tribe inhabiting the Northern slopes of the Samana range and the adjoining valleys of Tirah. The major source of income is as per Khyber agency agriculture; however a small industry of gun manufacturing also exists in the area. Poppy cultivation, drug smuggling has gained momentum in these areas over the last two decades. 19. Kurram Agency. The Agency has an area of about 1,278 square miles. Agriculture is the major profession in the area. Wherever water is available the soil is highly productive. Major crops are maize, wheat, rice, barley and clover. Apples, pears, grapes, cherries, pomegranates, peaches, and a fruit peculiar to the Kurrram and Tirah, known as the Shalil also grow in abundance and are one of the huge income earning sources. It is said that famine is unknown in Kurram. The agency is accessible from Kohat by the Khushalgarh Kohat Thal branch of the Railway and road link also exists. Forests of Blue Pine and Chinar contribute to the economy of the agency a great deal. 20. North Waziristan. The agency comprises of four large and fertile valleys. These valleys are irrigated by the Kurram, Tochi and Gomal rivers respectively. The lands of the valley are extremely rich, and grow heavy crops of maize, rice, sugar cane, wheat. Agriculture is the major backbone of the economy however smuggling also brings a lot of cash in the agency. Forests of Mulberry, chinar, willow, gurgura and wild olive are also abundant on the slopes of the mountain which can be exploited to bring huge finances in the area. Fruit orchards of apple, apricot and peaches also contribute to the economy of the agency. Cattle forming is also a major source of livelyhood in Pashtoon tribes of the agency. 21. South Waziristan. The lands which lie close to the numerous streams are well cultivated; their extent is insufficient to produce grain for the whole population. Wheat, barley, rice, maize and millet are the chief crops; these are often cut when green for fodder, springing up again before the harvest. Fruit orchards of apple and peaches are also contributing in the economy of the area. The chief mineral product is iron, which is found and smelted in many places, especially in the hills above Makin. Forests include wild olive, gurgura and dwarf palm trees. Mats and ropes are made of the dwarf palm by the men and the women weave rough cloth from wool and blankets from goats hair. Cattle farming is also very common in many a tribes in the area specially the Ghilzai Powindas. Trade has also been a famous profession in the area due to the link through Gomal Pass. It still continues with an amalgamation of smuggling. In certain areas of the agency poppy cultivation has also been reporte d, which is being controlled now days. Recommendations 13. The following is recommended to fasten the rate of development work in FATA to boast its economy and bring it in line with the settled areas of Pakistan:- Development Plan. The Central Government should allocate funds and provide loans to tribesmen organisations and individuals. The loans should be provided on minimal mark up rates and private and public sectors should be encouraged to assist the tribal organisations to develop viable and resource generating economic ventures of their own  [19]  . Share in National Finance Commission (NFC) Awards. NFC Award is based on the population of each province. In view of governments drive to bring FATA into the national mainstream, it is imperative that it be included in the NFC Awards as a separate entity. Transparent Financial Management. A system of transparent financial management should be evolved with participation of general public. The authority of auditor general should be extended to FATA and proper audit of accounts of all government departments should be carried out. Trade Sector. The international efforts for re-construction in Afghanistan and opening up of trade routes to CARs (Central Asia Republics) offer great economic opportunities for Pakistan with an annual trade which may fetch up to one billion dollars. Creation of environments conducive to trade will greatly help in improvement of economic situation. Following measures will help in this regard:- Opening of Trade Routes. Formal trade routes between Pakistan and Afghanistan should be opened on priority e.g. Ghulam Khan Route between Miranshah and Khost Custom Regulations. Relaxed custom regulations to encourage legalization of informal (smuggling) trade. Tribal Chamber of Commerce. The establishment of a Tribal Chamber of Commerce would enable the tribal traders to have better interaction with the national and international markets. Tribal National Bank. It should provide financial services, counselling and planning ability necessary to free the tribesmen from the isolation of an economic island in which they had been living for centuries. Agriculture Sector  [20]  . Agriculture sector can provide a substantive base for economic development. Following measures are recommended in this regard: Adopt the pocket area approach to focus on the production of specific crops in identified production zones. Improve water management practices by introducing efficient water use technologies, and constructing small dams, ponds and reservoirs. Reclaim cultivable wasteland through dry land agriculture. Introduce the use of bio-pesticides. Irrigation network needs to be developed by construction of small dams, check dams and channels. A land settlement system should be evolved on modern lines. Processing facilities should be provided to ensure proper packing and canning of fresh and dry fruit for international markets. Grafting of wild olive trees with fruit bearing species. Fruit culture and off-season vegetables with free fruit saplings and experts. Model fish farms have also been constructed to encourage locals to adapt to the modern systems of enhancing their income. Forestry Sector  [21]  . Forestry sector needs to be explored for economic improvement in the area. Following steps are recommended to be undertaken:- Launching of a conservation campaign for the forests. Encouraging plantation of new trees by provision of free saplings. Establishment of checks for smuggling of timber to Afghanistan. Modernization of timber industry in the area. Provision of assistance to locals for olive grafting and plantation of oaks and chalghoza pines. Live Stock Sector  [22]  . Following steps are recommended in this regard: Improve access to services, including animal health services. Increase the number of female livestock extension workers. Make feed and fodder widely available. Improve the condition and productivity of rangeland, in collaboration with research institutions and the forest department. Introduce new species of fodder, in collaboration with research institutions, farmers, tribes and herders. Enhance livestock production through breed improvement. Set up marketing facilities for farmers. Improve rural infrastructure and access to markets. Declare pocket areas for dairy production, with linkages to agro industry for marketing and service delivery. Ensure that savings and credit services are available to support micro enterprise and on-farm income generation activities. Enable farmers to improve marketing by providing information. Mobilise local communities, and establish linkages with public- and private-sector services for technical assistance and inputs. Encourage and support the establishment of livestock- and poultry-based industry. Develop a database, carry out resource mapping and set up information system to assist in planning and monitoring. Conduct research into animal nutrition and breed improvement. Raise awareness about the importance of the sector in terms of livelihood security, and lobby for adequate funding. Establishment of new veterinary hospitals and artificial insemination centres. Setting up of government subsidized live stock markets. Provision of incentives in the form of easy loans. Establishment of food processing facilities for canning of meat. Minerals Sector  [23]  . FATA has great potential of mineral resources. In order to increase productivity in the mining sector and improve the quality of the product, following strategies will be adopted:- Legal framework governing mining activities to encompass leasing, dispute resolution mechanisms and regulation. Increase the productivity of mines by adopting modern methods to boost quality and reduce wastage. Introduce new technologies through joint ventures on the basis of public-private partnerships. Maintain a healthy workforce by improving safety; develop emergency evacuation procedures. Improve the quality of human resources through intensive training. Following needs to be done to improve the situation in this sector:- (a) To encourage tribesmen either in joint ventures or lease agreements with public and private sectors. (b) The whole of FATA needs to be brought under geological survey mapping. (c) Special funds should for mineral exploration and development on modern lines. i. Industrial Sector  [24]  . However, there is a great potential available for development of certain industries in the area which should be exploited by public and private sector. These include following:- Construction material including cement. Decorative material including wood and marble products. Defence related industries including manufacture of small arms and ammunition. Public and private sectors should be encouraged to set up small scale industries. The option of establishing clusters or pockets in industrial parks will be explored. To set up training centres within functioning industrial units, for marble processing, mining, light engineering or footwear manufacture. Organise local craftsmen into trade guilds for promoting best practice, standardisation and quality control. Set up a regulatory authority for formulating investment-friendly policies through dialogue with stakeholders. Strengthen infrastructure in the region, including roads, electricity and water supply. Hold a regular dialogue with local tribes to promote investment. Short-term mining courses can be arranged by the mining department at the Peshawar University of Engineering and Technology. j. Tourism Sector  [25]  . Recommendations in this regard are as follows: Develop tourist facilities and services at selected locations. Facilitate private-sector involvement in the sector. Promote areas that already witness some degree of tourist activity. Encourage and facilitate inter-agency exchange visits and tours. Carry out research on the cultural and natural heritage of the area, and make this information widely available. k. Infrastructure Development. Following measures are recommended in this regard:- Rehabilitate roads for better connectivity to strategic locations. Construct new roads in remote or underdeveloped areas to generate economic opportunities and improve security. Build new bridges and rehabilitate damaged bridges. l. Good Governance. Good governance is a key prerequisite for achieving the goals set out in the economic development of FATA. Governance system is participatory, supported by a robust legal framework with active public consultations. m. Law and Order. Another basic requirement for socio-economic development is human security. This is of course a critical issue for the people but security is equally important to service providers and government officials who travel to and work in the area. In this regard following is recommended  [26]  : Reinforcement of the Frontier Corps with more manpower, modern equipment, mobility, intelligence, higher salaries and training in counterinsurgency. Properly trained, better equipped and reformed FATA police and Khasadar Force. Fencing of Pak-Afghan border with monitoring sensors Afghanistan and selected crossing places. Phase wise handing over of areas to FC and local Law Enforcement Agencies. n. Conflict Resolution. The people of FATA have long been accustomed to use of violent means for settling of conflict between the members of different tribes and clans. Although an indigenous mechanism for conflict resolution already exists in the form of the jirga, there is perhaps a need to find ways to prevent conflict from occurring in the first place. In this connection, it is worth exploring the possibility of a set of rules and regulations, arrived at by mutual consensus, to serve as a basic charter or code of conduct for peaceful coexistence. o. Private Sector Participation. The private sector has to play a crucial role in achieving the targets of economic development in FATA. The government must improve the framework conditions for the development of the private sector, and encourage public-private partnerships. Budgetary Allocation 14. Each year, the federal government sets aside a block allocation, known as the Annual Development Programme (ADP), intended exclusively for development expenditure. This allocation, disbursed according to province, region, sector or project, is part of the federally funded Pubic Sector Development Programme (PSDP).FATA receives an annual share of ADP funding. In addition to the ADP, the PSDP provides separate funds for programmes and projects in various agencies and FRs, and contributes to donor-assisted initiatives 15. Sector-specific allocations from the ADP are made at the Civil Secretariat FATA, based on priorities and needs. Although the development budget is not intended to finance salaries or recurrent liabilities, in practice this is often the case. Insufficient allocations for repairs and maintenance, meanwhile, mean that some of these costs are also met through the development budget  [27]  . Sector Wise and Consolidated Budgetary Allocation. 16. Details are attached as Annexure A. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT MODELS FOR FATA 17. ROZ (Reconstruction Opportunity Zones) Model  [28]  . ROZs would be a specific type of export processing zone, and thus part of a world-wide network of free trade zones

Measure for Measure Essay: Angelo -- Measure for Measure

Angelo in Measure for Measure   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Within Measure for Measure, the character of Angelo can be seen as a case study of will over moral nature. Angelo, a deputy, is given the Dukes authority to act in his behalf while the Duke is away. The story unfolds as Angelo uses the agency he's been given in ways that many men in authoritative positions have done. It is interesting to follow his line of thought and to realize that this is a man who is not unlike many others. The main conflict between Isabella and Angelo is a contemporary problem. Measure for Measure is a unique opportunity to investigate the personality types of the characters involved in the conflict, and the study of these complex characters can give meaningful insights into the nature of human emotion and action. Angelo's job is to take over in government while the Duke investigates his own character and those of others disguised as a friar. Whilst Angelo is in power, his will, ironically is in direct conflict with the law he is trying to uphold. He propositions chaste Isabella to engage in sexual activity in exchange for the life of her brother who is to be executed because of his sexual indiscretions. It can be perhaps seen that Angelo is not an inherently evil character, that he feel from ... ...with temptation." These are lessons that can apply to everyone.    Works Cited and Consulted: Black, James. "The Unfolding of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 26 (1973): 119-28. Leech, Clifford. "The 'Meaning' of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 3 (1950): 69-71. Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. J.W. Lever. London: Routledge, 1995. Thomas, Vivian.   Understandning Angelo in Measure for Measure.   London: Croom Helm, 1987. Wilders, John.   "The Problem Comedies."   In Wells, Stanley, ed.   Shakespeare: Select Bibliographical Guides.   London: Oxford UP, 1973.

Ethical Theories Essay

Moral dilemmas are a part of daily life and the solutions presented to them are usually dependent on the ethics that govern the individual facing them. Every person at one point in time has been faced with a moral dilemma. This can be described as the values which are used to determine the right way to handle a situation and the wrong way to go about it. Each society and community has its own moral index and in some societies, an action may be viewed tolerable or right, while the same action in another community would be viewed as intolerable and frowned upon. The moral index of a society usually goes hand in hand with religious beliefs and communities which are religiously inclined to have strict rules on what is suitable behaviour and what is not. Societies which have more secular values usually tolerate extreme or eccentric behavior. The difference in opinions of different people in what is normally right and wrong has led to the development of various ethical theories. Two of these theories are utilitarianism and duty ethics. An example of a situation which brought about different ethical stand points is the Firestone Company tire recall in 1999 and 2000. The company had discovered that its newly designed firestorm Radial ATX, ATX II and Wilderness AT tires were defective back in 1996, after 8 of the 18 times were singled out after they failed a test that tested the endurance of tires under high speed. Of the 14. 4 million tires sold approximately 6. 5 million tires had to be recalled due to defects in the details which involved the tread and one steel belt separating from the other steel belt and carcass The details has led to serious and even fatal accidents as the cars overturned when the accidents occurred while they were in motion. In an attempt to show difference between utilitarianism and duty ethics we shall consider an engineer working for the company at the time and the stand he or she would take if they subscribed to utilitarianism or duty ethics Utilitarianism can be described as an ethical theory that proposes that the action that brings good or favorable consequences to the majority is not subject to whether it is right or wrong meaning it is not subject to questioning. (Fredrick,2003) This theory was greatly championed by utilitarians such as John Stuart Mill. This theory advocates for actions that produce happiness to the greatest or largest number of people. In an ideal situation this may be possible but usually any action can produce happiness to many or a few people depending on the action. The theory does not usually advocate for the use of ethically correct actions at all times and thus actions which may be viewed as wrong sometimes bring happiness to a large group of people but the actions still remain morally wrong. An engineer subscribing to the utilitarianism way to life would have supported the company stand and the action it took. The company discovered that some tires were defective and did not recall the rest of the tires that had already been sold. This lead to accidents which caused suffering and death and it was not until an investigation into the cause of the accidents that finally forced the Firestone Company to admit liability and recall the tires. The company did not recall the tires because it feared the losses that it would face incase the tires were all defective. The company chose to protect their profits margins at the expense of their clients. (Little, 2003) As an engineer with a utilitarianism view point this action would be the best because recalling would mean great losses and downsizing in terms of job which would mean unemployment for many people working at the company affecting both them and their dependants. The duty ethics proposes that the action taken in any situation should be just and honest and respectful to all persons involved. This ethical principle advances for the upholding of principles regardless to the wrong consequences whether they will be good or bad. (Graham,2004) An engineer working for the Firestone Company would have chosen to recall all the defective tires and conducted a through investigation to the causes of the defaults without external pressure or the threat of law suits as inducement. The engineer moral compass would have guided them to make such a stand regardless to the fallout which is this case would have resulted in major losses to the company. As per the requirements of the engineering profession, this mechanical engineer was ascribed to some basic fundamental ethics and the relevant professional codes of conduct while in the jurisdiction of their duty. These are guidelines aimed at providing safety standards for the engineers while at work and the common good of the society. However, the same was objectively inadequate in the Firestone’s case. As a basic requirement, they should exercise their professional skills and also knowledge in providing contentment in the general human life. Impartiality and honesty should prevail in their service where fidelity to the public should never be compromised above that of clients and also employers. Elsewhere, engineers should pursue a continued development in their profession and bring service to their different clients without any conflict. These are the basic fundamentals of mechanical engineers whose proficiency is provided by the support of the canons of mechanical engineering. In conclusion the moral stand point taken by any individual should always be after requiring all the necessary information. This is because in every decision made, there are always individuals who love and those who benefit. As in the Firestone, the recalling decision would have resulted in loss. After careful evaluation one should decide on the decision that brings minimal losses in the involved activity.

The Beguines: The Brave, Religious Women of the Middle Ages

Women were expected to be two things in the Middles Ages, they either live under the charge of a husband in the household or dedicated herself to the Church in a convent as a nun. However, something unfamiliar happened in the late 12th century in parts of Europe, especially the Lowlands, Germany and Italy.Women who were called â€Å"beguines† gained prominence as they questioned those stereotyped concepts of being women and lived outside of those boundaries. During the Middle Ages, women who entered Beguinages (Beguine houses or convents) were not bound by permanent vows, in contrast to women who entered convents.It would seem that these women responded spontaneously to the work of the Holy Spirit to live a simple communal life of prayer, to care for the poor, the sick, lepers and orphaned, to teach, make lace, garden and anything else which enables them to be economically free in their respective communities. They also read and taught the Scriptures in the vernacular. The beg uines had a very special devotion to the Eucharist and to the Passion of Christ. The beguines were ordinary women who were in a certain world, but not really part of it.They are pious women whose devotional ardor often surpassed that of cloistered nuns. Like them, they dedicated their lives to God in a disciplined lifestyle, but unlike them they did not professed religious vows. In sum, it was the lifestyle of the early beguines, a lifestyle founded on intense spirituality, which differentiated them on the one hand from other laywomen and on the other from nuns. Women could enter beguinages having already been married and they could leave the beguinages to marry. Some women even entered the beguinages with children.Various debates exist with regards to their origins, but around 1150, groups of women, eventually called beguines, began living together for the purposes of economic self-sufficiency and a religious vocation. The attitudes of the clerics towards blossoming beguine movemen t were ambivalent at first. They deemed that these were groups of religious women who were dedicated to chastity and charity, which could not be condemned in any way. The fact that they existed and existed without men, except for priests and confessors to lead them, was suspect to the ecclesiastical hierarchy.For this and many other reasons, many beguines came to be known as heretics and were brutally persecuted. Though they were never an approved religious order, at one point they were granted special privileges and exemptions customary for approved orders. The Church, however, did not approve of their lack permanent vows. Women were not supposed to have that much freedom. What is particularly interesting about the Beguines was that, unlike most of those considered heretics, most of them considered themselves orthodox, but still beguines.Some strongly identified themselves as such and while in court testified to that effect, demonstrating self-identification with the group. Yet, th e group was diverse and is hard to define. This diversity was due in part to the geographical distribution as well as to the individual autonomy of each community. However, the beguines’ great devotion to the Eucharist emphasized the real presence of the incarnated Lord. At the height of the beguine movement the Feast of Corpus Christi was decreed by Pope Urban IV in 1264, and there is no doubt that the Eucharistic piety of the beguines attributed to the keeping of this feast.Indeed, the beguines wanted to imitate their Lord and to live as the Spirit inspired them. The first beguines were not subject to a rule of life, neither did the beguine have to make a life-time commitment. She was free to leave or to marry. Such a way of life was very attractive to the devout woman, and it is not surprising that their numbers grew swiftly. It was a welcome alternative to the cloister or marriage, although for women to live without the protection of the convent or a husband was quite rev olutionary in the early medieval period.Undoubtedly, the beguines had become an important fragment not only in the history of women’s movement, but also the development of the Catholic faith. Origins of the Beguines Two important movements in the 12th century had their impact on those who became known as beguines. The Cistercian monk, Bernard of Clairvaux (1090- 1153), especially from his writings on The Song of Songs emphasized the importance of a personal relationship between the soul and the Lord. He allegorized this relationship as being similar to that of the bride and the heavenly Bridegroom.This union between the beloved and the lover was a foundation upon which the feminist mystics, including beguines, developed an intimate spirituality with their Lord. Of course the receiving of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament was the outward act of this union. Closely associated with this nuptial image of Bernard was the â€Å"reasonable mystic† and â€Å"learned lover† of his friend, William of St. Thierry (1085-1148), who happened to live in Liege, the birthplace of the beguine movement.He appealed to the soul to know God in perfect love, which also appealed to these mystics (McNichols, 2002). Another factor contributing to the birth of the beguine movement was the vita apostolica, which St. Francis of Assisi had preached by returning to the ideals that our Lord had preached to His disciples: poverty, simplicity and a burning desire to preach the Gospel. The acceptance of this Franciscan preaching and mendicant order in 1215, even though no new orders were supposed to be have founded, gave inspiration to like-minded souls (McNichols, 2002).In the early twelfth century a new order, Premonstratensains, was founded in Liege by Norbert of Xanten who allowed religious women to be â€Å"attached† and to do charity work in the world. However his successor reversed this role and all nuns were expelled from the order by the end of the century. In a way, these sisters were the forerunners of the beguines (McNichols, 2002). In addition, when the church structures were becoming increasingly inaccessible to women in the 13th century; where convents were overcrowded and entrance dowries were expensive; women's orders were scarce and subject to male oversight.At this time in Liege and Antwerp, on the peripheries of urban centers, self-supporting communities of women began to appear. They lived by the work of their hands, often caring for the poor, the sick and the dying, and carried on regular devotional practices. They sought â€Å"an unstructured, nonhierarchical spiritual life that was both active (in the sense of ministering to the needs of others) and contemplative (in the sense that meditation and visionary experience were highly valued and developed)† (Petroff 1994, p. 51-52). This was the seed of what would become the beguinages.More elaborately, Walter Simons explained in the preface to Cities of Ladies Beguine Co mmunities in the Medieval Low Countries, 1200-1565 (2001) that the most widely held scholarly opinions about the origins of the beguines both have their source in medieval materials. James of Vitry's second Sermon to Virgins, written sometime between 1229 and 1240, provides Joseph Greven with his argument that the beguines were â€Å"nuns manquees, women who became beguines because they could not be nuns† (p. x). Similarly a statement on the origins of the beguines made by a clerical committee who visited the beguinage of St.Elizabeth of Ghent in 1328 became the basis for Karl Bucher's argument that the beguine movement was the result of a â€Å"surplus of women† in the urban areas of the Southern Low Countries and other parts of northern Europe. As Simons summarized that the two materials of James of Vitry and the bishop's men at Ghent agreed on several points: they argued that large numbers of young women of the best families, in their desire to live chastely, attemp ted to join a nunnery, but that many of them could not find a convent that would accept them: there were simply too many candidates.The Ghent report added that women could not afford the entrance gift, the dos, required in most monasteries – an obstacle to their entry that James tactfully omitted. It further differed from James in its assessment of the primary motive that drove women to the convent: it was the inability to conclude a suitable marriage that prompted these women to the monastic life; when the latter proved impossible, they joined the beguinage (p. xi).Seen from the perspective of the committee at Ghent, particularly as reread by Bucher and others, the beguines were driven primarily by economic and social forces and beguinages were â€Å"thus just female versions of guild organizations† (p. xi). Grundmann, as Simon noted, was the first to write about a â€Å"religious movement by women† (â€Å"religisen Frauenbewegung†) and to understand the specifically religious motivations behind the beguine life style, particularly their emphasis on poverty and labor in the pursuit of the apostolic life.Grundmann goes on, however, to describe in detail the complex negotiations between the papal curia, the mendicant orders, and the women's religious communities whereby the mendicants were eventually persuaded-sometimes pressured-into taking over the â€Å"care of souls† and often institutional responsibility for women's houses (Grundmann's most detailed examples of this process involve communities that became Dominican convents).Implicit within the narrative of Religious Movements in the Middle Ages, then, lies the argument that orderly communities of beguines desired and ultimately succeeded in becoming more traditional convents, most often within the mendicant orders. Beguines were forced to give up ideals of individual poverty and self-support and to possess sufficient corporately owned property to maintain a community of enclosed nuns.Hence ecclesial concerns for women's chastity and religious propriety required that women's religious ideals be transformed. As Grundmann argues, the result is the spiritualization of poverty within the writings of the thirteenth-century beguines and their heirs among both male and female Dominican authors. Without directly contesting Grundmann's arguments, which for the most part pertain to Germany, Simons presents a significantly new picture of the development of beguine communities in the Southern Low Countries.Simons divides the history of the movement into two periods: the first, from 1190-1230, saw the emergence of laywomen living alone or together in â€Å"loose communities without institutional attachments† (p. 36). The primary sources pertaining to this period are eleven hagiographies devoted to individual holy women involved with the movement from 1190-1250. Often written shortly after their death and in each case by male clerics or monks interested in promoting cults around the holy women, none of these women were ever canonized nor did they all maintain the beguine lifestyle.In fact, as Simons points out, hagiographers from the period and region seemed particularly interested in women who moved from the beguinal milieu into more traditional forms of monastic life (p. 92). Groups of women outside convents, like the beguines, had to steer a narrow course in order to avoid â€Å"the shoals of anticlericalism and heresy that always threatened the spiritual creativity of women† (McNamara 1990, p. 237). The success and spread of the beguine movement would suggest it did answer a need felt among women for an independent expression of their own religious creativity.It is also important to note that beguines fall under the more general designation of mulieres religiosae (religious women), an umbrella term which included nuns, recluses, and virgins living at home or in small groups. The appearance of the mulieres religiosae, who f lourished in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, was a major religious development, possibly connected with factors like the Crusades, priestly celibacy and harsh physical labor, which resulted in women outnumbering men in Western Europe.Religious motives, however, were perhaps even more important than socio-economic ones (DeGanck 1991, p. 2-3). Development of the Beguine Movement Scholars trace the development of the beguine movement through several stages, beginning with individual women (beguinae singulariter in saeculo manentes) living in towns but observing the evangelical principles as well as they could. These individuals eventually came together in the beguinages (congregationes beguinarum disciplinatarum) that are the main focus of this chapter.Later, some of the communities took the form of cloistered communities (beguinae clausae); finally, some communities were reconstituted as autonomous parishes (Little 1978, p. 130). Around 1230, these loose communities of widows, v irgins, and chaste wives began to acquire property, to draw up regulations governing the life of the group, and to present â€Å"themselves to the outside world as religious institutions, either in the form of small ‘convents,' or as larger architectural complexes segregated in some manner from the surrounding urban community, the so-called court beguinages† (Simons 2001, p.36). Simons therefore convincingly demonstrates that up to and through the Catholic Reformation the beguine movement in the Southern Low Countries remains a lay urban movement characterized by the preponderance of women from a range of social classes who participated within it (p. 91-117). In addition, Simons provides invaluable information about the beguines' work in the textile industry (p. 85-87), with the sick and dying (76-80), and-perhaps most importantly for the study of spirituality-in teaching (p.80-85). Grundmann's early argument for the centrality of the beguines' lay status to the develop ment of vernacular religious literature here finds crucial support. Not only did the beguines themselves read and write in the vernacular, but they were also engaged in the education of girls and women who then in turn constituted an audience for vernacular religious writing. The development of the beguinages demonstrated an outgrowth of the lay religious awakening of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.It also reflected the social background of the era. Although much more positive than simply a stand against clerical mediocrity and Western feudalism, the growth of the beguinages did, nevertheless, provide alternatives to both. The beguinages represented a new way of giving religious significance to women's ordinary lives (Bynum 1987, p. 17). It was characteristic of the beguinage to combine the vita contemplativa and appropriate devotional exercises with the practical solution of daily problems.The beguines customarily engaged in weaving, spinning, carding, charitable activity, se wing, and the education of children. So religious impetus and economic factors were intertwined in a beguine's life (McDonnell 1954, p. 146). Theologically, medieval women were faced with contradictory doctrines which placed them either on a pedestal or in a bottomless pit: the virgin or the temptress. In the Christian view of sacred history, the greatest source of blessing for humanity after Christ was his mother, Mary; the greatest source of grief was also a woman Eve, the mother of us all.Clearly, Christian tradition saw women as both the greatest and the weakest (Power 1962, p. 401-403). Thus, the beguines were bound to change these by shaping their own religious experience in lay communities, where female charisms served as alternative to the male emphasis on the power of office, the beguines paralleled other women who were emerging from the feudal system and becoming economically independent through small crafts, shops, and businesses in new towns (Bynum 1987, p. 22).Also, it has been suggested that the strength of the beguines lay in their unique combination of traditional spirituality with their freedom from the restrictions of the cloister, a combination which allowed them to experiment and break new ground. Beguines adopted a chaste way of life and dressed simply, but they were not separated from the world, nor were they bound to any ecclesiastical authority. To wit, The beguine movement differed substantially from all earlier important movements within the western church.